Disclosure of adult sexual violence

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The disclosure of sexual violence experienced in adulthood can represent the culmination of a long decision-making process during which the person assesses the risks and benefits associated with disclosure. Despite social movements such as #MeToo and the increasing media coverage of allegations by adult victims of sexual violence, many victims choose not to talk about their experiences for various reasons. For some people, however, not disclosing sexual violence can have a negative impact on their health and lead to significant consequences, including a higher likelihood of sexual revictimization1.

According to the results of a Quebec survey conducted in a university setting,a over a third (35.9%) of people who reported experiencing at least one form of sexual violence committed by someone affiliated with the university, since arriving at the institution never disclosed the situation to anyone. Men were less likely to disclose (50.2%) than women (67.4%) and gender diverse people (70.8%). At the collegiate level,bmore than half (53.8%) of people who have experienced a form of sexual violence in CEGEP never disclosed the situation to anyone.2

Other studies conducted among student populations also reveal that a significant proportion of those who reported having experienced one or more experiences of sexual violence did not disclose their experience to anyone, ranging from 25% to 55%,1 and that women are more likely to disclose than men.3

Surveys conducted in Quebec CEGEPs and universities

a The study Enquête sexualité, sécurité et interactions en milieu universitaire (ESSIMU) was carried out in 2016 with a sample of 9,284 people working or studying at one of the six Francophone Quebec universities included in the survey.

b The study Projet intercollégial d’étude sur le consentement, l’égalité et la sexualité (PIECES) was conducted in 2019 with a sample of 6,006 people working or studying at one of the five CEGEPs included in the project.

Who do adults disclose sexual violence to?

Adult victims of sexual violence are more likely to disclose to informal sources of support, such as friends (or peers), intimate or romantic partners, and family members.1,3,4 Disclosure to formal sources, such as the police, health professionals, therapists, and counsellors, is much less common, as these sources are often consulted as a last resort.1,4 According to the 2014 General Social Survey (GSS) on victimization conducted in Canada, those who had experienced a sexual assault in that same year said they had most often told a friend or someone in their neighbourhood (64%), followed by a family member (41%), a work colleague (24%), then a doctor or nurse (6%).5 According to the same survey, 19% of women victims of sexual assault reported having consulted a support service (e.g., a crisis centre, a helpline, a victim assistance service, a psychologist).5 Sexually and gender-diverse people who have been sexually assaulted also disclose more to informal sources of support (from 9% to 44%), compared to formal sources of support (from 4% to 21%).6 Bisexual women are more likely than lesbian or heterosexual women to disclose, both to informal (24% to 77%) and formal (9% to 71%) sources of support6.

In university and college settings, the majority of victims who disclose sexual violence report confiding to someone in their social network or a person affiliated with the university. Few choose to disclose the situation to resources outside the university or CEGEP, or to police authorities.2,7

Sources of disclosure of sexual violence in universities and CEGEPs, Quebec 

 

Sources: ESSIMU and PIECES studies
Bergeron, M., A. Gagnon, M.-È. Blackburn, D. M-Lavoie, C. Paré, S. Roy, A. Szabo, & C. Bourget (2020). Rapport de recherche de l’enquête PIECES : Violences sexuelles en milieu collégial au Québec, Montréal, Chaire de recherche sur les violences sexistes et sexuelles en milieu d’enseignement supérieur, Université du Québec à Montréal  (consulted December 5, 2022).
Bergeron, M., M. Hébert, S. Ricci, M.-F. Goyer, N. Duhamel, L. Kurtzman, I. Auclair, L. Clennett-Sirois, I. Daigneault, D. Damant, S. Demers, J. Dion, F. Lavoie, G. Paquette, & S. Parent (2016). Violences sexuelles en milieu universitaire au Québec : Rapport de recherche de l’enquête ESSIMU, [en ligne], Montréal, Université du Québec à Montréal (consulted December 5, 2022).

Reporting and formal complaint of adult sexual violence

In Canada, the proportion of sexual assaults reported to the police is very low, and it is one of the most under-reported violent crimes. According to data from the 2019 General Social Survey (GSS) on victimization, 6% of sexual assault incidents that year were brought to the attention of the police.8 The incidents, unlike the other types of crime measured in this survey, were just as likely to be brought to the attention of the police by the victim (2.4%) as in some other way (3.3%).8 Data from the 2018 Survey of Safety in Public and Private Spaces (SSPPS) supports this, revealing that 5% of women reported the most serious sexual assaults to the police.9

In Canada, less than one in ten women (9%) who reported having been sexually assaulted in the workplace said they had filed a formal complaint or grievance.10 In the Canadian Armed Forces, one in four victims of sexual assault who are members of the Regular Force reported that the incident was brought to the attention of a person in a position of authority (e.g., a military supervisor or other military person in a position of authority), while just under one in ten (9%) reported that the incident was brought to the attention of the military police or the Canadian Forces National Investigation Service.11

Distribution of adult (18 and over) victims of sexual offences reported to the police, by time taken to report to the police, 2020a

 

aUpdated data
Source: Ministry of Public Security. Data from the Uniform Crime Reporting Survey (UCR)

In the case of sexual victimization in a university context, only 9.6% of victims stated that they had disclosed or reported the situation to their university.7 This low use of services was also observed at the college level, with more than nine out of ten (93.5%) victims reporting that they had never reported or disclosed the situation to a CEGEP authority or resource.2

Disclosure delays

In Quebec, 3,055 sexual assault offences and 368 other sexual offences committed against adults were reported by police in 2020.12 Of these offences (including sexual assault and other sexual offences), over half were reported to the police in less than seven days.13

In university settings, two-thirds (68.1%) of those who disclosed sexual violence did so within a week of the event, followed by 13.3% within a month, 11.6% within 12 months, and 4.6% a year or more later.7

Reasons for not disclosing sexual violence

Victims of adult sexual violence report a number of reasons for not disclosing or for delaying disclosure. These reasons include:  

  • Fear of not being believed;8
  • Feelings of guilt or shame;8
  • The desire to stop thinking about the event and move on;7
  • The belief that the sexual assault was not serious enough to warrant reporting, that it was a harmless incident, or that it is a private or personal matter;5,7,9
  • Fear of negative consequences for oneself or the perpetrator;5,9,14
  • Fears and concerns about the police and the legal process.5,8,9,14

Facilitators and obstacles to the disclosure of sexual violence

The following table presents: 1) the factors that facilitate the disclosure of adult sexual violence (facilitators), i.e., elements that increase the likelihood of disclosure or are associated with quicker disclosure, and 2) the factors that hinder disclosure or are more likely to delay disclosure (obstacles). The facilitators and obstacles presented are drawn from quantitative and qualitative studies of adults who have experienced at least one sexual violence in adulthood.

Individual characteristics
FacilitatorsObstacles
  • Acknowledging that the sexual assault experienced is a crime15
  • Re-experiencing and hyperarousal symptoms16
  • Positive past experiences of sexual assault disclosure6
  • Fear of not being believed10
  • Fear of being blamed17
  • Feelings of shame, guilt, embarrassment and powerlessness1,10,15
  • Not acknowledging that the event was a sexual assault, minimizing the sexual violence, or believing that the event was not serious enough to be reported1,5,9,10,15,16,18
  • Fear of negative reactions from others1,6
  • Fear of negative consequences for oneself (e.g., on financial security and employment, risk of reprisals) and for the perpetrator (e.g., legal consequences)5,9,10,14
  • Not wanting anyone else to know, or wanting to keep the experience private15,16
  • The belief that sexual assault is a private or personal matter5
  • Avoidance symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder16
  • Past negative experiences of sexual assault disclosure6
  • Experiences of stigmatization and marginalization (e.g., having several marginalized identities)6,17
Characteristics of sexual violence
FacilitatorsObstacles
  • The fact that the victim physically resisted the sexual assault19
  • Having been injured during the sexual assault4
  • The fact that the victim froze during the sexual assault19 
  • The victim’s alcohol consumption at the time of the sexual assault4,18
Social and relational context
FacilitatorsObstacles
  • Higher levels of perceived and actual social support20
  • Encouragement from friends and family to utilize health services15
  • A positive response to the first informal disclosure is an incentive to seek help on campus15
  • N/A
Societal context
FacilitatorsObstacles
  • Awareness of university policies (e.g., penalties for sexual assault) and available resources6
  • Rigid gender roles, heteronormative stereotypes, taboos and myths about sexual violence6,17
  • Socio-cultural attitudes that minimize the seriousness of sexual violence and expose victims to blame, shame, skepticism, and stigmatization14

While there are many individual factors influencing disclosure, environmental and contextual factors also play a decisive role. On university campuses, a study of 413 universities in the U.S. showed that reporting of sexual assault was influenced more by institutional rather than individual context, such as a strong mobilization against violence, a women’s rights centre, and having a woman as university president21.

Reactions to the disclosure of sexual violence

The way others react to the disclosure of sexual violence has a significant impact on victims, their recovery, and their ability to cope.1 One in five victims of sexual violence report that another person made them feel responsible or blamed them for their own victimization, such as by making them feel irresponsible, reckless or that they could have prevented the situation.7,9 For some people, the simple act of disclosing sexual violence can lead to social isolation or other social and health consequences.17

Generally, positive reactions are associated with beneficial effects for people who disclose sexual violence. These reactions can represent a restorative experience, contributing positively to the victim’s recovery process. Conversely, negative reactions have the potential to aggravate symptoms of anxiety, depression, and post-traumatic stress4,6. Sexually and gender-diverse people are more likely to anticipate a negative reaction to their disclosure and to receive mixed reactions. Bisexual women generally receive more negative social reactions than cisgender heterosexual women, which would have an impact on their feelings of reliving trauma6.

The following table presents a few examples of positive and negative reactions and their impact on victims, drawn from the results of scientific studies on the subject.

To find out more about how to help a victim and receive their disclosure, consult the Receiving a disclosure of sexual violence section.

 

References

  1. Halstead, V., J. R. Williams et R. Gonzalez-Guarda (2017). « Sexual violence in the college population: A systematic review of disclosure and campus resources and services », Journal of Clinical Nursing, vol. 26, n° 15‑16, p. 2137‑2153.
  2. Bergeron, M., A. Gagnon, M.-È. Blackburn, D. M-Lavoie, C. Paré, S. Roy, A. Szabo et C. Bourget (2020). Rapport de recherche de l’enquête PIECES : Violences sexuelles en milieu collégial au Québec, Montréal, Chaire de recherche sur les violences sexistes et sexuelles en milieu d’enseignement supérieur, Université du Québec à Montréal.
  3. Cusano, J., A. Kirkner, L. Johnson et S. McMahon (2021). « Sexual violence prevalence and disclosure patterns among college undergraduates: Exploring types of sexual violence and incident-specific characteristics », Journal of American College Health, p. 1‑11.
  4. Sabina, C., et L. Y. Ho (2014). « Campus and college victim responses to sexual assault and dating violence: Disclosure, service utilization, and service provision », Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, vol. 15, n° 3, p. 201‑226.
  5. Conroy, S., et A. Cotter (2017). Les agressions sexuelles autodéclarées au Canada, 2014, [en ligne], Statistique Canada, « Juristat », <https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/fr/pub/85-002-x/2017001/article/14842-f…; (consulté le 17 janvier 2023).
  6. Edwards, K. M., V. A. Mauer, M. Huff, A. Farquhar-Leicester, T. E. Sutton et S. E. Ullman (2022). « Disclosure of sexual assault among sexual and gender minorities: A systematic literature review », Trauma, violence & abuse, p. 15248380211073842.
  7. Bergeron, M., M. Hébert, S. Ricci, M.-F. Goyer, N. Duhamel et L. Kurtzman (2016). Violences sexuelles en milieu universitaire au Québec : Rapport de recherche de l’enquête ESSIMU, [en ligne], Montréal, Université du Québec à Montréal, <https://chairevssmes.uqam.ca/wp-content/uploads/sites/124/Rapport-ESSIM…; (consulté le 19 janvier 2022).
  8. Cotter, A. (2021). La victimisation criminelle au Canada, 2019, [en ligne], Statistique Canada, « Juristat », <https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/pub/85-002-x/2021001/article/00014-fra…; (consulté le 10 décembre 2021).
  9. Cotter, A., et L. Savage (2019). La violence fondée sur le sexe et les comportements sexuels non désirés au Canada, 2018 : Premiers résultats découlant de l’Enquête sur la sécurité dans les espaces publics et privés, [en ligne], Statistique Canada, « Juristat », <https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/pub/85-002-x/2019001/article/00017-fra…; (consulté le 10 décembre 2021).
  10. Burczycka, M. (2021). Expériences de comportements sexualisés inappropriés, d’agressions sexuelles et de discrimination fondée sur le genre vécues par les travailleurs dans les provinces canadiennes, 2020, [en ligne], Statistique Canada, <https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/pub/85-002-x/2021001/article/00015-fra…; (consulté le 8 août 2022).
  11. Cotter, A. (2019). Les inconduites sexuelles dans la Force régulière des Forces armées canadiennes, 2018, [en ligne], Statistique Canada, <https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/pub/85-603-x/85-603-x2019002-fra.htm&gt; (consulté le 9 août 2022).
  12. Ministère de la Sécurité publique (2022). Criminalité au Québec – Infractions sexuelles en 2020, [en ligne], Québec, Gouvernement du Québec, <https://cdn-contenu.quebec.ca/cdn-contenu/adm/min/securite-publique/pub…; (consulté le 21 mars 2023).
  13. Ministère de la Sécurité publique (29 septembre 2022). Délai entre la perpétration d’une infraction sexuelle et le signalement à la police [document inédit].
  14. Prochuk, A. (2018). WE ARE HERE: Women’s Experiences of the Barriers to Reporting Sexual Assault, [en ligne], Vacouver, West Coast LEAF, <http://www.westcoastleaf.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/10/West-Coast-Leaf…; (consulté le 27 mai 2022).
  15. Stoner, J. E., et R. J. Cramer (2019). « Sexual violence victimization among college females: A systematic review of rates, barriers, and facilitators of health service utilization on campus », Trauma, violence & abuse, vol. 20, n° 4, p. 520‑533.
  16. Walsh, R. M., et S. E. Bruce (2014). « Reporting decisions after sexual assault: The impact of mental health variables », Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, vol. 6, n° 6, p. 691‑699.
  17. World Health Organization (2021). Violence against women prevalence estimates, 2018, [en ligne], Geneva, World Health Organization, <https://www.who.int/publications-detail-redirect/9789240022256&gt; (consulté le 27 mai 2022).
  18. Cohn, A. M., H. M. Zinzow, H. S. Resnick et D. G. Kilpatrick (2013). « Correlates of reasons for not reporting rape to police: Results from a national telephone household probability sample of women with forcible or drug-or-alcohol facilitated/incapacitated rape », Journal of Interpersonal Violence, vol. 28, n° 3, p. 455‑473.
  19. Pinciotti, C. M., et A. V. Seligowski (2021). « The influence of sexual assault resistance on reporting tendencies and law enforcement response: Findings from the National Crime Victimization Survey », Journal of Interpersonal Violence, vol. 36, n° 19‑20, p. NP11176‑NP11197.
  20. Orchowski, L. M., et C. A. Gidycz (2012). « To whom do college women confide following sexual assault? A prospective study of predictors of sexual assault disclosure and social reactions », Violence Against Women, vol. 18, n° 3, p. 264‑288.
  21. Boyle, K. M., A. Barr et J. Clay-Warner (2017). « The effects of feminist mobilization and women’s status on universities’ reporting of rape », Journal of School Violence, vol. 16, n° 3, p. 317‑330.
  22. Therriault, C., N. Bigras, M. Hébert et N. Godbout (2020). « All involved in the recovery: Disclosure and social reactions following sexual victimization », Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment & Trauma, vol. 29, n° 6, p. 661‑679.
  23. Orchowski, L. M., A. S. Untied et C. A. Gidycz (2013). « Social reactions to disclosure of sexual victimization and adjustment among survivors of sexual assault », Journal of Interpersonal Violence, vol. 28, n° 10, p. 2005‑2023.
  24. Orchowski, L. M., et C. A. Gidycz (2015). « Psychological consequences associated with positive and negative responses to disclosure of sexual assault among college women: A prospective study », Violence Against Women, vol. 21, n° 7, p. 803‑823.
  25. Ullman, S. E., et L. Peter-Hagene (2014). « Social reactions to sexual assault disclosure, coping, perceived control, and PTSD symptoms in sexual assault victims », Journal of Community Psychology, vol. 42, n° 4, p. 495‑508.
  26. Peter-Hagene, L. C., et S. E. Ullman (2014). « Social reactions to sexual assault disclosure and problem drinking: Mediating effects of perceived control and PTSD », Journal of Interpersonal Violence, vol. 29, n° 8, p. 1418‑1437.

Authors: Maude Lachapelle, Scientific Advisor, INSPQ
Catherine Moreau, Scientific Advisor, INSPQ 
Contributor: Dominique Gagné, Scientific Advisor, INSPQ 
External review: Roxanne Guyon, Ph. D, Assistant Professor of Sexology, Université Laval
Jacinthe Dion, Ph. D., Full Professor in Psychology, Université du Québec à Trois-Rivières

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