Sexual violence against young athletes in sports

If you believe you are experiencing or have experienced sexual violence in sports, or in any other context, you can call the Sexual Violence Helpline at 1-888-933-9007.

If you suspect that someone you know is a victim or has been a victim of sexual violence, there are many resources available. Visit our Resources page for a complete list of resources for victims and their loved ones.

If you have reason to believe that a minor (under 18) is being sexually abused, regardless of the context, you must report it immediately to your local Director of Youth Protection (DYP).

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Highlights

  • Sexual violence refers to any form of violence, with or without contact (e.g., sexual touching, voyeurism, sexual harassment), manifested sexually or targeting sexuality. In sports, sexual violence against young people can be perpetrated by fellow athletes, by people in positions of authority, such as coaching staff, or by spectators.
  • Young athletes can be victims of sexual violence in several contexts, whether as a part of sport itself, such as during training sessions or competitions, or as part of a related activity, such as during a trip to a competition, an initiation, a team party, in the locker room, or at the home of the coaching staff.
  • Several organizational and social factors have been associated with sexual violence in sports, such as the normalization of violence in sports and the hierarchical and gendered social structure of sports organizations. Factors associated with the coach-athlete relationship, the characteristics of the sport, and individual characteristics have also been identified.
  • Coaching staff who sexually abuse young athletes use a variety of strategies to do so. Those in positions of authority may manipulate young athletes to develop a relationship of trust and closeness, then progressively cross the boundaries of this relationship to the point of perpetrating sexual violence. Some will also take advantage of sports-related occasions or an athlete's altered state of consciousness to commit sexual violence.
  • Sexual violence can have harmful consequences for the mental health and participation in sports of young athletes who are victims of it.
  • Victims of sexual violence may decide to disclose their experiences to someone close to them, to an affiliated or unaffiliated professional support service to their school or sports organization or to the police. Young athletes who are victims of sexual violence may also decide not to disclose their experiences, due to shame or guilt associated with the violence, difficulty in recognizing sexual violence, or fear of negative consequences for their athletic career or their relationship with coaching staff.
  • Strategies to prevent sexual violence against young people in sports are varied and mainly involve sports organizations, coaching staff, young athletes and their parents. 

In this text, the term “young people” refers to those aged 25 and under, although the majority of studies reviewed deal with sexual violence experienced by athletes under the age of 18. The term “athletes” refers to people who practice an organized sport (as part of a sports team, club, league, etc.) and participate in games, competitions, or tournaments.

Definition and manifestations of sexual violence in sports

The expression "in sports" refers to any time or place in which a young person plays a sport or participates in a sports-related activity, for example:

  • during training or games
  • during a competition
  • during a team initiation
  • during a trip or outing
  • during a social activity related to the sport (e.g., team party)
  • in the locker rooms or showers
  • at the athlete’s or coaching staff’s home1

While playing sports has many benefits for young people's development and health, it also provides a context in which they can experience various forms of violence, including sexual violence1.

Sexual violence encompasses a continuum of acts of violence, with or without contact, manifested sexually or that target sexuality. These acts or attempted sexual acts can be committed by anyone, regardless of their relationship with the victim, and in any context2.

In sports, sexual violence can be committed by fellow athletes (e.g., teammates, opponents), people in positions of authority (e.g., paid or volunteer coaching staff, medical or support staff, board members or managers, referees), or spectators1,3,4. It can be manifested in several ways:

  • Without physical contact, including:
    • Sexual harassment (e.g., sexual comments, gender-based jokes, unwanted or intimidating sexual propositions)
    • Exhibitionism or voyeurism 
    • Filming or photographing a young person undressing or masturbating
    • Involving a young person in pornography and prostitution
  • With physical contact, including:
    • Sexual touching or invitation to sexual touching
    • Acts of penetration or attempted penetration (vaginal, anal, or oral)1,3,5–8

This list is not exhaustive.

Sports initiations and hazing

Sports initiations can take many forms and have positive effects on team cohesion and spirit. However, it can also lead to abusive and violent situations, such as hazing9,10. Hazing refers to any potentially humiliating, degrading, abusive, or dangerous activity imposed on an athlete by a more experienced fellow athlete. It is an activity that does not contribute to the athlete's positive development and is carried out in order to gain acceptance from peers as a team member1,11. Athletes can be victims of sexual violence in this context, in cases where the  hazing involves verbal abuse, threats, and/or sexually explicit physical acts (such as sexual harassment, forced nudity, or sexual touching)12. The existence of hazing in sports in Quebec and Canada has been documented in a number of scientific publications and testimonials12,13. Au Québec, une étude réalisée en 2022 et 2023 auprès de 299 athlètes de 14 à 17 ans ayant participé à une initiation dans le cadre de leur sport a In Quebec, a study conducted in 2022 and 2023 among 299 athletes aged 14 to 17 who had taken part in a sports initiation showed that 40% reported having been subjected to practices involving hazing. In the same sample, 8% of athletes reported having experienced situations of sexual violence in the context of initiation (e.g., being forced to simulate or perform sexual acts, to strip naked, to have sexual relations, etc.)14.

Portrait of sexual violence experienced by young athletes

In Quebec, the Study on the Experiences of Youth in Sports in Québec (EVAQ), conducted among 19,642 secondary school students in 2022 and 2023, documented acts of violence experienced by young people who played an organized sport. The results of this study show that 56% of young respondents aged 14 and over involved in organized sports have experienced at least one act of violence from a person in a position of authority or from a peer athlete since they started playing sports. The forms of violence included were psychological, physical, sexual, and instrumental, as well as neglect. In this study, instrumental violence refers to a person in a position of authority asking or forcing an athlete to:

  • Restrict ties with their social network so that they are more committed to their sport
  • Train despite injury or medical contraindication  
  • Use means to help them achieve an ideal weight for their sport (e.g., total fasting, vomiting, diet pills, diuretics, or laxatives)15

To find out more , consult Study on the Experiences of Youth in Sports in Québec (EVAQ), Institut de la statistique du Québec (in French only).

Another major Quebec study, whose data were collected in 2017, also documented experiences of violence in sports, this time among 1,055 young people aged 14 to 17 involved in organized sports. According to this study, 84.5% of young athletes reported having experienced at least one form of violence at the hands of a peer athlete, coaching staff, or the athlete's parent in their lifetime. The forms of violence included were psychological, physical, and sexual, as well as neglect. With regard to sexual violence specifically, 28.2% of the young athletes in the sample reported having experienced it in their lifetime, either committed by a peer or coaching staff. No difference was found between boys and girls. Looking at the more specific forms of sexual violence experienced, among all the young athletes who took part in the study:

  • 27.1% reported experiencing sexual harassment (e.g., sexual and offensive comments about their sex life or body)
  • 2.0% reported non-contact sexual violence (e.g., voyeurism, exposure to pornography)
  • 2.1% reported contact sexual violence (e.g., sexual touching, penetration)4.

Sexual violence experienced by young people in sports can be committed by peer athletes, people in positions of authority such as coaching staff (paid or unpaid), medical or support team members (e.g., health professionals, physical trainers), parents of athletes and referees, as well as spectators15,16.

Sexual violence committed by peers

In most cases, sexual violence against young athletes is committed by peer athletes3,5,17. According to the EVAQ, 14% of young people in the study have experienced at least one act of sexual violence from a peer since they started playing sports. A higher proportion of girls in the sample reported this violence (16%), compared to boys (11%)15. According to the results of the 2017 Quebec study of 1,055 athletes aged 14 to 17, the prevalence of young athletes having experienced sexual violence in sports from a peer athlete in their lifetime was slightly higher, at 22.7%. In this study, figures were similar for girls and boys18.

The most common acts of sexual violence reported by young people involved in organized sports who participated in the EVAQ include rude and hurtful sexual remarks (11.1%), uncomfortable behaviour of a sexual nature (6.2%), followed by forced sexual touching (2.1%). Contexts in which sexual violence committed by a peer was reported included during practice (6.1%), in the locker room (4.6%), at school (3.7%), during travel to a competition (2.8%), during a sports initiation (2.7%), and other contexts (4.7%; e.g., a team party or training camp)15. As for the gender of the perpetrators, male victims were more likely to have experienced this violence from male peers, while female victims experienced similar violence from both boys and girls15.

Sexual violence committed by persons in a position of authority

According to the EVAQ, 8% of young people in the study reported having been the victim of at least one act of sexual violence by a person in a position of authority. As with peer violence, a higher proportion of girls in the sample (11%) reported having been victims, compared with boys (6%). In this study, people in positions of authority included coaching staff (paid or unpaid), physical trainers, health professionals, and the athlete's parents15. According to the Quebec study of athletes aged 14 to 17, 11.6% of young athletes reported having experienced sexual violence at the hands of a member of the coaching staff. Once again, a higher proportion of girls (12.8%) had experienced it than boys (8.2%)18.

The acts of sexual violence committed by people in positions of authority that were the most frequently reported in the EVAQ include rude, hurtful or uncomfortable remarks (5.6%), conversations of a sexual nature or exposure to images of a sexual nature (2.4%), and unhealthy sexual behaviour (2.2%). Approximately 1% of young people reported having been subjected to penetrative sex by a person in a position of authority. Like sexual violence committed by a peer, sexual violence perpetrated by a person in a position of authority occurred during practice (2.9%), at school (1.4%), during a sports initiation (1.1%), and in the locker room (1.1%). However, it also occurred in other contexts (3.7%), such as in a car, at a training camp, or at the home of a person in a position of authority15. The majority of acts perpetrated by people in positions of authority against boys were perpetrated by men. For girl victims, figures were more evenly split between male and female authority figures15.

Factors associated with the risk of sexual violence in sports

Sexual violence can be perpetrated and experienced in all sports and at all levels. It is the result of a complex interaction between several factors, and no single factor can explain why some young people are more at risk than others of experiencing sexual violence in sports. The factors presented in this section are characteristics for which one or more studies have demonstrated an association with sexual violence in sports. It is therefore not a matter of cause and effect. Documented factors include organizational and social factors, factors associated with the coach-athlete relationship, the characteristics of the sport played, and the individual characteristics or previous experiences of athletes.

Factors associated with risk are not presented in order of importance or frequency.

Organizational and social factors

  • Tolerance and normalization of interpersonal violence in sports by athletes, stakeholders in the sports system, the media, and the general public9,19,20
    • Normalizing sexual violence perpetrated by men against women21
    • Not recognizing sexual violence between coaching staff and athletes of the same gender or sex21
  • Hierarchical and gendered social structure of sports organizations and power imbalances between men and women (e.g., coaching positions often held by men) and lack of appropriate screening measures during the hiring process (e.g., criminal background checks)9,19–21
  • Formal and informal power of coaching staff or other high performance athletes over athletes' lives (e.g., control over and access to aspects of athletes' personal lives), often characterized by gender and age differences9
  • Conformity to the dominant values associated with sports, such as traditional male values and the obligation or expectation to conform to the requirements of experts in the sport9
  • Unconditional trust of sports organizations and parents in the coaching staff and its unquestioned authority in athletes' careers1,9,21
  • Culture of silence of organizations on sexual violence (e.g., inaction despite knowledge or suspicion of sexual violence)9
  • Lack of clear rules regarding the limits of the coach-athlete relationship in sports organizations9,20
  • General lack of training and information for volunteers, parents, coaching staff, and athletes on sexual violence20
  • Lack of organizational leadership to enforce measures and lack of coordination between the various bodies involved in the problem20

Factors associated with the coach-athlete relationship

  • Power imbalance in the coach-athlete relationship that favours the coaching staff20,21
    • Authoritarian coaching style21
    • Coaching staff's control over athletes1
  • Social, emotional, and physical closeness between coaching staff and athletes (e.g., friendship, comparison of coach-athlete relationship to parent-child relationship)21
  • Ambiguous roles and boundaries between coaching staff and athletes (e.g., shared leisure activities with coach, physical contact, personal conversations, and expression of affectionate feelings)21

Factors associated with the characteristics of the sport played:

  • Participation in an international sport or competition (e.g., due to athletes’ greater investment of time, money, and energy in their sport)4,22
  • Psychological and physical isolation of athletes from their social support network (e.g., when training in a remote location or due to restricted access to training sessions)9
  • Early specialization in one sport (i.e., starting a sport before the age of 12 and stopping the practice of other sports to concentrate solely on the chosen one)23
  • Adhesion to the norm of self-sacrifice, specifically in girls (e.g., making sacrifices to be the best athlete, making sports-focused decisions)5
  • Adhesion to the norm of seeking distinction (e.g., striving for superiority, striving for victory above all else)5

Factors associated with individual characteristics or previous experiences

Warning: The association between sexual violence and certain individual characteristics or identities is influenced by the context in which the sexual violence occurs. For example, a sexual orientation other than heterosexuality may increase the risk that a person will experience sexual violence in a heteronormative context, since heterosexuality is considered the norm for sexual orientation in this context.

  • Female sex or gender3,5,22-26
  • Sexual diversity and gender plurality (e.g., gay, lesbian, bisexual, trans, or queer)4,22,26
  • Experiences of childhood victimization (outside of sports): neglect, physical violence, sexual violence with or without contact23,27

Strategies used by coaching staff to perpetrate sexual violence and the athlete-coach relationship

Coaching staff who sexually abuse young athletes use a variety of strategies to do so. A Canadian study explored the modus operandi of 120 male coaches who had committed sexual abuse involving physical contact with one or more athletes aged 6 to 17 under their authority. According to this study, which examined court judgments and media reports on these cases, the strategies used by coaches are numerous and can be divided into six stages: 1) targeting a potential victim, 2) gaining the athlete’s trust, 3) developing dependency and exerting control, 4) isolating the athlete, 5) gaining their cooperation, and 6) maintaining their silence28.

In almost half of the cases examined in this study, coaches reported targeting a potential victim athlete (stage 1) in a vulnerable situation (e.g., mental health issues, prior history of sexual assault, disability). Then, to gain the athlete's trust (stage 2), the strategies most often used by coaches were to establish a social, emotional, and physical closeness by becoming the athlete's confidant, spending a lot of time with them and befriending their family and peers28. This process of manipulation, also known as grooming, aims to create a climate of trust with the athlete, and to then take advantage of this trust to progressively cross the boundaries of the relationship and promote opportunities to commit sexual violence21,28. To develop dependency and exert control over the athletes (stage 3), the majority of coaches included in the study didn't use any specific strategy, while some resorted to an authoritarian coaching style, including telling the athlete that they needed to succeed. Next, almost all coaches used strategies to isolate the athlete (stage 4), for example by taking them to an isolated location aside from the training site or their home. Once alone with the athletes, they tried to gain their cooperation (stage 5) by various means. For example, some directed the nature of conversations towards sexual matters, gradually touched the athletes in a more sexual way, took advantage of their altered state of consciousness, either by giving them alcohol, drugs, or medication (with or without their knowledge), or took advantage of the fact that the athletes were asleep28. Some coaches also took advantage of sports-related opportunities (e.g., therapeutical massages, treating an injury) to commit sexual violence, while others declared their love for the athlete (especially with female victims) or played sexualized games (especially with male victims) in an attempt to obtain their cooperation28. Maintaining the athlete's silence is the last stage of the process (stage 6), but in the majority of cases examined, no strategy was used to maintain the athlete's silence. In other cases, coaches threatened athletes with punishment or negative consequences to keep them silent (e.g., by ceasing coaching, threatening their physical safety, etc.)28.

Furthermore, since the relationship between the coaching staff and underage athletes (under 18 years of age) cannot be equal, the notion of consent to sexual activity cannot be applied29. The age difference between the coaching staff and the athletes, the relationship of power, authority and dependency, and the ambiguous professional, ethical and interpersonal constraints are all characteristics of these relationships21,29. Because of the relationship of trust and occasionally the perceived romantic feelings towards their coach, athletes sometimes report having difficulty identifying the relationship as abusive and perceiving sexual relations as unwanted. It's often only after the relationship has ended that athletes realize the abusive nature of the relationship21.

Consent to sexual activity

In Canada, the legal age of consent, which is a person's voluntary agreement to engage in sexual activity, is 16 years. Certain exceptions apply to young people aged 12 to 15 years who engage in sexual activity with each other.* However, when sexual activity occurs within a relationship of authority, trust, dependency, or exploitation, such as by coaching staff, the age of consent is 18 years30,31.

*In situations where the younger partner is aged 12 or 13 years, consent is valid if the older partner is less than 2 years older. In situations where the younger partner is 14 or 15 years old, consent is valid if the older partner is less than 5 years older.

For more information on sexual consent, visit the Legal Framework.

Consequences associated with sexual violence in sports for young victims

Physical activity, whether part of organized or unorganized sports, has considerable benefits for the quality of life and well-being of those who participate. For children and young people, it also contributes to improved physical fitness, mental health, and academic success. However, when acts of violence are perpetrated against athletes in this context, the young victims can suffer harmful consequences32.

Yet, the consequences of sexual violence for young athlete victims are poorly documented. The few studies on this subject have mainly focused on adult athletes33,34, with the exception of one study involving a sample of young athletes aged 14 to 17 years18. Consequences include mental health effects such as low self-esteem, psychological distress, post-traumatic stress symptoms, anxiety, loneliness, irritability, anger, confusion, poor body image, lack of trust in others, and suicidal ideation18,33,34. Sexual violence experienced in sports has also been associated with significant consequences for athletes' involvement in sports, such as quitting or changing sport, reduced performance, absence from training, or lack of concentration during training33.

  • For more information on the consequences of childhood sexual abuse, regardless of the context in which it occurs, visit the Consequences section.

Moreover, athletes who are victims of hazing, whether sexual or non-sexual, are at greater risk of developing psychological and physical health problems (e.g., depression, anxiety, eating disorders, post-traumatic stress symptoms, suicidal ideation, sexual transmission of infections). Several cases of injury, death, and suicide have also been reported in connection with hazing35.

Disclosure of sexual violence in sports

Disclosing a situation of sexual violence, whether experienced in a sports environment or not, is a complex process. Victims may decide to disclose to someone close to them (e.g., family member, friend, intimate partner), to a professional support service (e.g., doctor, nurse, psychologist), to a help resource offered by their school or sports organization, or to the police. Others may choose not to disclose their experiences36.

An Australian study conducted in 2021 among young people aged 18 to 25 years who had experienced psychological, physical, or sexual abuse in sports as children showed that 34.6% of those who had been abused by a peer disclosed their experience to an adult. The prevalence is lower among athletes who were victims of violence by coaching staff, where only 26.8% had disclosed their experience to an adult. Most of the time, young people included in the study had disclosed their experience to a parent37. In general, male athletes are less likely than female athletes to disclose sexual violence in sports to their peers or parents38,39.

Several factors are mentioned by athletes in their decision to disclose to an adult an incident of violence (psychological, physical, or sexual) experienced in sports. The relationship with the adult, the anticipation of their reaction, the consequences of the disclosure on oneself or on the perpetrator, and the recognition of the experience as violence are all factors taken into consideration by athletes when disclosing their experience of violence. Other factors associated with disclosure are the potential consequences for one's sport (e.g., no longer being able to play) and one's sport community (e.g., losing one's community)37.

Several reasons specific to sexual violence are also reported by young athletes for not disclosing the experience. They may feel ashamed or guilty about what happened to them, or they may not recognize that they have been sexually abused28. Several obstacles are also cited when it comes to reporting sexual violence to a support resource offered by a school or sports organization, or to the police. These include fear of repercussions on their career and of negative reactions from peers and coaching staff, as well as fear of altering team dynamics or of reprisals from peers or the perpetrator of the sexual violence28,38,40.

Although there are barriers for young athletes to report sexual violence, certain factors can encourage them to do so. For example, knowledge of where to report sexual violence and a positive perception of institutional responses to reporting (e.g., that the complaint is taken seriously, that officials conduct a fair investigation41.

For more information on disclosures of sexual violence, visit the Disclosure of sexual assault and Disclosure process pages.

Strategies to prevent sexual violence in sports

To prevent sexual violence against young athletes and combat its normalization, it is necessary to implement a variety of actions with the different stakeholders involved, in order to target the factors associated with this violence. Prevention strategies can address factors at the level of sports organizations, coaching staff, parents, and young athletes.

Among the strategies proposed, several studies suggest the development, improvement, and promotion of guidelines or codes of conduct within sports organizations. This strategy would enable sports organizations to draw clear lines between what is and is not appropriate in terms of behaviour and relationships between coaching staff and young athletes21,42-44. With this in mind, researchers recommend promoting the safety and integrity of those involved in sports in order to prevent violence in sports, regardless of the form it takes19,45. Ensuring a safe environment for athletes, in locker rooms for example, is one way of achieving this46. Other important recommendations were made by athletes, officials, coaching staff, parents, and administrators who took part in workshops as part of a Quebec study. Based on what the participants had to say, the researchers identified six guidelines to ensure that the Quebec sports environment becomes a place where the integrity and safety of all those involved are respected, such as:

  • Establishing a clear framework and a common, comprehensive definition of integrity
  • Developing and offering training tailored to the needs of the people involved
  • Monitoring and assessing the measures implemented
  • Setting limits and imposing sanctions
  • Focusing on communication and collaboration between all the people and organizations involved in the sports environment
  • Offering resources, promoting them, and developing new ones as needed45

Some studies also recommend educating coaching staff and young athletes about the manifestations and consequences of sexual violence in sports, through programs or training21,42,43. Sexual violence prevention programs aimed at educating young athletes and implemented in schools would also benefit from the participation of other athletes in their development or organization43. Knowledge and improvement of mechanisms for reporting sexual violence in sports by athletes and their parents are other strategies identified44,46,47.

Several authors also stress the importance for coaching staff to reflect on how they interact and communicate with athletes, while having transparent communication and open negotiation with athletes about their roles, mutual expectations and limitations21. Parents of young athletes should be made aware of the importance of informing themselves about the code of conduct and policies in effect, if any, regarding relationships between coaching staff and athletes46.

For more information on strategies to prevent sexual violence, regardless of the context in which it is committed, consult the Prevention section.

Quebec and Canadian initiatives to prevent violence in sports

In Quebec, the SportBienÊtre.ca online platform went live in 2015 thanks to the collaboration of Ski Québec Alpin, SafeSport, and the Ministère de l'Éducation. It provides information and raises awareness of interpersonal violence, including sexual violence, among stakeholders in the sports world48. The Sport'Aide organization (website in French only), for its part, raises awareness and informs stakeholders in the sports world, as well as the general public, of the need to support and collaborate with those working in sports as well as sports organizations. Sport'Aide assists and guides young athletes and stakeholders in the sports world towards the right support resources49. In Canada, the Abuse-Free Sport program prevents and informs against all forms of harassment, discrimination, and abuse at all levels of sport. It also offers a free, anonymous, confidential, and independent helpline for victims or witnesses of violence in sports50.

Quebec policies on safety in sports

In terms of legislation, the Act respecting safety in sports was created in 1979 to ensure the safety and integrity of people involved in sports. The Minister of Education, who is mandated to apply the Act, is responsible for collecting, analyzing, and disseminating information on safety in sports; participating in the development of safety training methods for people working in the field of sports; and approving the safety regulations of a sports federation or organization, to ensure the safety of participants and spectators during sporting activities51. In February 2021, a policy for the protection of personal integrity was implemented in all sports federations, with the aim of improving the process for reporting sexual violence in sports and encouraging athletes to come forward. Every sports federation in Quebec must appoint an independent officer to handle complaints. The policy also aims to raise awareness among the various stakeholders involved in recreation and sport52.

In 2023, the Quebec Commission on Culture and Education took up a mandate to investigate the revelations of violence during initiations in junior field hockey and the possible situation in other sports. The report, which is the result of consultations and briefs submitted to the Commission, puts forward 23 recommendations intended to counter the trivialization of hazing and improve violence prevention and education. Some of the recommendations focus on prevention and awareness-raising tools, including training, guides, and resources for athletes, coaches, parents, volunteers, and referees53.

References

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Authors: Maude Lachapelle, Scientific Advisor, INSPQ
Cynthia Nasr, Scientific Advisor, INSPQ
Contributor: Dominique Gagné, Scientific Advisor, INSPQ
External review: Sylvie Parent, Full Professor, Université Laval
Marie-Pier Vaillancourt-Morel, Assistant Professor, Université du Québec à Trois-Rivières

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